Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine ›› 2026, Vol. 46 ›› Issue (4): 1026-1041.DOI: 10.19852/j.cnki.jtcm.2026.04.022
• Review • Previous Articles
Intranasal essential oils in therapy: advances in clinical applications and delivery mechanisms
LIANG Yong1, GUAN Qiuyan1, CHEN Yi1, WU Wei1,2, YANG Ming1, TANG Fangrui1, WANG Yawen1, PAN Deng1, HUANG Xiaoying1(
), LI Huiting1()
- 1
Key Laboratory of Modern Preparation of Traditional Chinese Medicine ,Ministry of Education, Jiangxi University of Chinese Medicine Nanchang 330004, China
2College of Pharmacy ,Jinan University Guangzhou 510632, China
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Received:2025-03-26Accepted:2025-11-13Online:2026-08-15Published:2026-08-08 -
Contact:Prof. HUANG Xiaoying, Prof. LI Huiting, Key Laboratory of Modern Preparation of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Ministry of Education, Jiangxi University of Chinese Medicine 330004, China. 8842100@qq.com;Li Huiting19@163.com,Telephone: +86-13607062322; +86-18702694569
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Supported by:Hainan Province Science and Technology Special Fund: Research on the Chemical Basis of Aroma Formation and High-value Utilization of Hainan Agarwood(ZDYF2025SHFZ055);National Natural Science Foundation of China: Research on Stabilization Control Strategies of Essential Oils Based on “Porous Adsorption-Size Sieving-Structural Controlled Release”(82404878);Natural Science Foundation of Jiangxi Province: Research on the Design of Mesoporous Material-Loaded Essential Oil Solidified Powders and Their Stabilization Application in Tablets(20242BAB20456);Key R & D Projects of Ganjiang New District in Jiangxi Province: Development and Application of “Scent Stabilization” Technology for Essential Oils(2023007);Doctoral Research Startup Fund Project of Jiangxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine: Research on Process Control Strategies for the “Release-Stabilization” of Essential Oils Based on Volatility and Pyrolyzability, Optimization of Microbial Fermentation Process for Fengyan Aurantii Fructus(2024BSZR016);Doctoral Research Startup Fund Project of Jiangxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine: Research on Process Control Strategies for the “Release-Stabilization” of Essential Oils Based on Volatility and Pyrolyzability, Optimization of Microbial Fermentation Process for Fengyan Aurantii Fructus(2024BSZR005);Science and Technology Research Project of Jiangxi Education Department: Research on the Degradation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Wastewater by Hydrotalcite-Based Photocatalysts(GJJ211258);National College Students' Innovation and Entrepreneurship Training Program in 2024: Yunding Fragrance-Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) Scalp Therapy Essential Oil(202410412007);Provincial College Students' Innovation and Entrepreneurship Training Program in 2024: Yinyang Zhihe-a TCM Compound Essential Oil Pillow Sheet for Insomnia Caused by Liver Fire Disturbing the Heart(S202410412094)
Cite this article
LIANG Yong, GUAN Qiuyan, CHEN Yi, WU Wei, YANG Ming, TANG Fangrui, WANG Yawen, PAN Deng, HUANG Xiaoying, LI Huiting. Intranasal essential oils in therapy: advances in clinical applications and delivery mechanisms[J]. Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 2026, 46(4): 1026-1041.
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Table 1 Therapeutic effects of EOs on CNS disorders: experimental models and clinical findings
| Essential oil | Participant/animal | Dose/mode | Effect | Mechanism | Indication | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lavender | Patient with PSD | Nonwoven bag con-tains microcapsules with 1.5 g EO Inhale every night for 4 weeks | Alleviate depression and improve the quality of sleep | n/a | Depression Insomnia | Yin et al 2024 |
| Lavender/chamomile | Patient | 1.5% inhale A cotton ball is poured with three drops/d for 30 d | Significantly relieve patients' depression and anxiety | n/a | Depression Anxiety | Ebrahimi et al 2022 |
| Bergamot | Healthy female | 1‰v/v Inhale for 15 min | Reduced salivary cortisol levels, increased parasympathetic nervous system activity, improved mood states | n/a | Anxiety | Watanabe et al 2015 |
| Lemon, Eucalyptus, Tea tree, Peppermint | Healthy participants | Day: EO pendant; Night: Aroma stone (3 drops); inhale for 4 weeks | Significantly higher sleep quality and lower depression levels | n/a | Insomnia Depression | Lee et al 2017 |
| Bergamot | EPM and hole-board test-induced anxiety model—Wistar rats | 1.0%, 2.5%, 5.0% w/w Inhale 7 min | The percentage of entries in the open arms↑ Time spent on the open arms↑ | Reducing the corticosterone stress response to attenuated HPA axis activity | Anxiety | Saiyudthong et al 2010 |
| Suhexiang (Storax Liq-uidambaris Orientalis) | CMS-induced depression model-ICR mouse | 10% SHX inhale 10 min/d for 12 d 30 min/d for 12 d | ANG↓, TPO↓, IL-6↓, TNF-α↓ | Effect on the infl-amematory resp-onse and/or blood vessel change | Depression Anxiety | Liang et al 2018 |
| Ciguoeshen (Radix Anthrisci Nemorosae) | Scopolamine-induced choli-nergic amnesia in Wistar rats | 1%, 3% inhale for 21 d | Significantly improves memory and reduces anxiety and depre-ssive-like behavior | n/a | Depression Anxiety Cognitive enhance-ment | Bagci et al 2016 |
| Zhizi (Fructus Gardeniae) | OF, EPM, and LDB-induced anxiety model in ICR mice | 10% (v/v) inhale 10 min | Elevated the time mice spent in the open arms, the entries spent in the open arms, and the time duration in the light chamber | 5-HIAA↓, 5HIAA/5HT↓ | Anxiety | Zhang et al 2020 |
| Moxa smoke | Subthreshold doses of pento-barbital-induced sleep in KM mice | 0.4%, 1.2%, 15% Inhale 20 min/d for 7 d | High concentration signi-ficantly pro-longed the pento-barbital-induced sleeping time and sleeping rate | Component of the Eucalyptol soothing effect on the CNS | Insomnia | Jia Yang et al 2016 |
| Chenxiang (Lignum Aquilariae Resinatum) | PCPA-induced insomnia model-KM mice | 2 μL, 4 μL, 8 μL Inhale 1 h/d for 7 days | Significantly shorten sleep latency and prolong sleep time | GABAA↑,GABAA/Glu↑, 5HT↑, Adenosine ↑ | Insomnia | Wang et al 2022 |
| Zisuye (Folium Perillae Argutae) | PCPA-induced insomnia model-ICR mice | 1.5‰, 3‰, 6‰ Inhale 1 h/d for 7 d | Increase the falling asleep rate, shorten the latency of sleeping time, and prolong the duration. | Hypothalamus and cerebral cortex 5-HT, GABA↑ | Insomnia | Zhong et al 2021 |
| Suhexiang (Storax Liquidambaris Orientalis) | Hippocampus injection of Aβ1-42 induces an AD-like model in ICR mice | 3 h/time 2 times/d Inhale for 14 d | Improve memory impairment | Suppressed Aβ1-42 induced phosphorylation of JNK, p38, Tau in hippocampus | Cognitive enhance-ment | Jeon et al 2012 |
| Peppermint | APP/PS1 trans-genic mice induce an AD model | 1 h/time 2 times/d Inhale for 21 d | Improve learning and me-mory ability and decrease cognitive impairment, decrease Aβ deposition | Improving amino acid metabolism and energy metabolism | Cognitive enhance-ment | Lv et al 2022 |
| Lavender | i.p. scopolamine induces a memory disorder model -ICR mice | 1%, 2%, 3% Inhale 1 h/d for 10 d | Improve spatial memory defects | Brain tissue SOD↓, GPX↓, and CAT↓ reduce oxidative stress | Cognitive enhance-ment | Zhu et al 2017 |
Table 1 Therapeutic effects of EOs on CNS disorders: experimental models and clinical findings
| Essential oil | Participant/animal | Dose/mode | Effect | Mechanism | Indication | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lavender | Patient with PSD | Nonwoven bag con-tains microcapsules with 1.5 g EO Inhale every night for 4 weeks | Alleviate depression and improve the quality of sleep | n/a | Depression Insomnia | Yin et al 2024 |
| Lavender/chamomile | Patient | 1.5% inhale A cotton ball is poured with three drops/d for 30 d | Significantly relieve patients' depression and anxiety | n/a | Depression Anxiety | Ebrahimi et al 2022 |
| Bergamot | Healthy female | 1‰v/v Inhale for 15 min | Reduced salivary cortisol levels, increased parasympathetic nervous system activity, improved mood states | n/a | Anxiety | Watanabe et al 2015 |
| Lemon, Eucalyptus, Tea tree, Peppermint | Healthy participants | Day: EO pendant; Night: Aroma stone (3 drops); inhale for 4 weeks | Significantly higher sleep quality and lower depression levels | n/a | Insomnia Depression | Lee et al 2017 |
| Bergamot | EPM and hole-board test-induced anxiety model—Wistar rats | 1.0%, 2.5%, 5.0% w/w Inhale 7 min | The percentage of entries in the open arms↑ Time spent on the open arms↑ | Reducing the corticosterone stress response to attenuated HPA axis activity | Anxiety | Saiyudthong et al 2010 |
| Suhexiang (Storax Liq-uidambaris Orientalis) | CMS-induced depression model-ICR mouse | 10% SHX inhale 10 min/d for 12 d 30 min/d for 12 d | ANG↓, TPO↓, IL-6↓, TNF-α↓ | Effect on the infl-amematory resp-onse and/or blood vessel change | Depression Anxiety | Liang et al 2018 |
| Ciguoeshen (Radix Anthrisci Nemorosae) | Scopolamine-induced choli-nergic amnesia in Wistar rats | 1%, 3% inhale for 21 d | Significantly improves memory and reduces anxiety and depre-ssive-like behavior | n/a | Depression Anxiety Cognitive enhance-ment | Bagci et al 2016 |
| Zhizi (Fructus Gardeniae) | OF, EPM, and LDB-induced anxiety model in ICR mice | 10% (v/v) inhale 10 min | Elevated the time mice spent in the open arms, the entries spent in the open arms, and the time duration in the light chamber | 5-HIAA↓, 5HIAA/5HT↓ | Anxiety | Zhang et al 2020 |
| Moxa smoke | Subthreshold doses of pento-barbital-induced sleep in KM mice | 0.4%, 1.2%, 15% Inhale 20 min/d for 7 d | High concentration signi-ficantly pro-longed the pento-barbital-induced sleeping time and sleeping rate | Component of the Eucalyptol soothing effect on the CNS | Insomnia | Jia Yang et al 2016 |
| Chenxiang (Lignum Aquilariae Resinatum) | PCPA-induced insomnia model-KM mice | 2 μL, 4 μL, 8 μL Inhale 1 h/d for 7 days | Significantly shorten sleep latency and prolong sleep time | GABAA↑,GABAA/Glu↑, 5HT↑, Adenosine ↑ | Insomnia | Wang et al 2022 |
| Zisuye (Folium Perillae Argutae) | PCPA-induced insomnia model-ICR mice | 1.5‰, 3‰, 6‰ Inhale 1 h/d for 7 d | Increase the falling asleep rate, shorten the latency of sleeping time, and prolong the duration. | Hypothalamus and cerebral cortex 5-HT, GABA↑ | Insomnia | Zhong et al 2021 |
| Suhexiang (Storax Liquidambaris Orientalis) | Hippocampus injection of Aβ1-42 induces an AD-like model in ICR mice | 3 h/time 2 times/d Inhale for 14 d | Improve memory impairment | Suppressed Aβ1-42 induced phosphorylation of JNK, p38, Tau in hippocampus | Cognitive enhance-ment | Jeon et al 2012 |
| Peppermint | APP/PS1 trans-genic mice induce an AD model | 1 h/time 2 times/d Inhale for 21 d | Improve learning and me-mory ability and decrease cognitive impairment, decrease Aβ deposition | Improving amino acid metabolism and energy metabolism | Cognitive enhance-ment | Lv et al 2022 |
| Lavender | i.p. scopolamine induces a memory disorder model -ICR mice | 1%, 2%, 3% Inhale 1 h/d for 10 d | Improve spatial memory defects | Brain tissue SOD↓, GPX↓, and CAT↓ reduce oxidative stress | Cognitive enhance-ment | Zhu et al 2017 |
Table 2 Therapeutic effects of EOs on respiratory system disorders: experimental models and clinical findings
| Essential oil | Participant/animal | Dose/mode | Effect | Mechanism | Indication | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sandalwood, Geranium, Ravensara | Perennial AR patient | 0.2% (v/v) Inhale 5 min/time, 2 times/d for 7 d | Relieve AR symptoms, improve AR patients, and reduce AR patients' fatigue | n/a | AR | Choi et al 2016 |
| Ravintsara, Geranium, Eucalyptus radiata, niaouli | Perennial AR patient | 2 times/d nasal spray for 30 d | 69.8% of patients with rhinitis were controlled | n/a | AR | Caimmi et al 2021 |
| Menthol | Inhaling citric acid induces cough in healthy participants | 75% (w/w) Inhale for 5 min | Reduce cough frequency | n/a | Cough | Morice et al 1994 |
| Chamaecyparis obtusa | OVA-induced AR model-BALB/c mice | 0.01%, 0.1% intranasal instill 20 μL for 14 d | Anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic effects | Inhibiting inflammatory mediators' production and expression | AR | Shin et al 2020 |
| Lavender | OVA-induced asthma model -BALB/c mice | 5 or 20 μL EOs on filter paper inhalation for 20 min/d 5 d/week for 2 weeks | Suppressed allergic airway inflammation and mucous cell hyperplasia | BALF cytokine IL-5, IL-13↓, lung tissue mRNA expression level of IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13↓ | Asthma | Ueno-Iio et al 2014 |
| Yuxingcao (Herba Houttuynia cordata) | HDM-induced asthma model -BALB/c mice | 10 mg/mL nebulized inhalation for 30 min 1 time/2 d for 21 d | Anti-inflammatory activity prevents airway remodeling | n/a | Asthma | Huang et al 2023 |
| Bergamot | OVA-induced asthma model -BALB/c mice | 20, 40, 80 mg/kg Nebulization Inhale for 7 d | Anti-inflammatory effects, reduce cytokine release and mRNA expression | Downregulating the MAPK, JAK-STAT pathway, PPARA↓, PTGS2↓ | Asthma | Feng et al 2023 |
| Peppermint | PM10 and OVA-induced asthma model-BALB/c mice | 0.1% (v/v) aerosolized inhalation 5 min/d for 23 d | Inhibition of the airway wall hickening, collagen deposition, goblet cell activation | IL-6↓, p-JAK2↓, p-STAT3↓ | Asthma | Kim et al 2020 |
| Turmeric | Ammonia induces cough in KM mice Citric acid induces cough in the guinea pig | 5%, 10% aerosol Inh 20 min two times/d for 3 d | Anti-inflammatory and antibacterial effects | n/a | Cough | Li et al 1998 |
| Menthol | Citric acid induces cough in the guinea pig | 3, 10, 30 μg/L Inhale for 5 min | Dose-dependent reduction of cough frequencies, increases cough latency | n/a | Cough | Laude et al 1994 |
Table 2 Therapeutic effects of EOs on respiratory system disorders: experimental models and clinical findings
| Essential oil | Participant/animal | Dose/mode | Effect | Mechanism | Indication | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sandalwood, Geranium, Ravensara | Perennial AR patient | 0.2% (v/v) Inhale 5 min/time, 2 times/d for 7 d | Relieve AR symptoms, improve AR patients, and reduce AR patients' fatigue | n/a | AR | Choi et al 2016 |
| Ravintsara, Geranium, Eucalyptus radiata, niaouli | Perennial AR patient | 2 times/d nasal spray for 30 d | 69.8% of patients with rhinitis were controlled | n/a | AR | Caimmi et al 2021 |
| Menthol | Inhaling citric acid induces cough in healthy participants | 75% (w/w) Inhale for 5 min | Reduce cough frequency | n/a | Cough | Morice et al 1994 |
| Chamaecyparis obtusa | OVA-induced AR model-BALB/c mice | 0.01%, 0.1% intranasal instill 20 μL for 14 d | Anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic effects | Inhibiting inflammatory mediators' production and expression | AR | Shin et al 2020 |
| Lavender | OVA-induced asthma model -BALB/c mice | 5 or 20 μL EOs on filter paper inhalation for 20 min/d 5 d/week for 2 weeks | Suppressed allergic airway inflammation and mucous cell hyperplasia | BALF cytokine IL-5, IL-13↓, lung tissue mRNA expression level of IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13↓ | Asthma | Ueno-Iio et al 2014 |
| Yuxingcao (Herba Houttuynia cordata) | HDM-induced asthma model -BALB/c mice | 10 mg/mL nebulized inhalation for 30 min 1 time/2 d for 21 d | Anti-inflammatory activity prevents airway remodeling | n/a | Asthma | Huang et al 2023 |
| Bergamot | OVA-induced asthma model -BALB/c mice | 20, 40, 80 mg/kg Nebulization Inhale for 7 d | Anti-inflammatory effects, reduce cytokine release and mRNA expression | Downregulating the MAPK, JAK-STAT pathway, PPARA↓, PTGS2↓ | Asthma | Feng et al 2023 |
| Peppermint | PM10 and OVA-induced asthma model-BALB/c mice | 0.1% (v/v) aerosolized inhalation 5 min/d for 23 d | Inhibition of the airway wall hickening, collagen deposition, goblet cell activation | IL-6↓, p-JAK2↓, p-STAT3↓ | Asthma | Kim et al 2020 |
| Turmeric | Ammonia induces cough in KM mice Citric acid induces cough in the guinea pig | 5%, 10% aerosol Inh 20 min two times/d for 3 d | Anti-inflammatory and antibacterial effects | n/a | Cough | Li et al 1998 |
| Menthol | Citric acid induces cough in the guinea pig | 3, 10, 30 μg/L Inhale for 5 min | Dose-dependent reduction of cough frequencies, increases cough latency | n/a | Cough | Laude et al 1994 |
Table 3 Therapeutic effects of EOs on cardiovascular system disorders: Experimental Models and Clinical Findings
| Essential Oil | Participant/ Animal | Dose/Mode | Effect | Mechanism | Indication | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lavender, ylang-ylang, Marjoram, Neroli | Hypertensive participants | Necklace with the EOs inhaled for 24 h for 4 weeks | Significant decreases in daytime SBP and DBP | n/a | Hypertension | Kim et al 2012 |
| Lavender | Patients | 2% two drops Inhale 10 min | Reduce systolic, diastolic pressure, and heart rate | n/a | Hypertension | Armaiti Salamati et al 2017 |
| Rosmarinus officinalis | Hypotensive patients | Inhale 8 h/d for 72 weeks | Significant increase in SBP, DBP, and heart rate | n/a | Hypotension | Fernández et al 2014 |
| Lemon | Health participants, patients | Three to four drops. Inhale for 10 min | Significant increase in health participants' heart rate and DBP, Consider-able increase in patient SBP, DBP, and heart rate | n/a | Hypotension | Goepfert et al 2017 |
| Moxibustion | Spontaneous AS model -ApoE−/− mice | Inhale 20 min/d 6 d/week for 12 weeks | Regulated blood lipid reduces plaque area formation | TG↓,LDL↓, ApoA-I↑, LXRα↑, ABCA1↑ | AS | Cui et al 2019 |
| Moxibustion | High-Cholester-ol diet and an injection of bo-vine serum alb-umin induces AS model-rabbit | Inhale 10 min/d for 4 weeks | Regulated blood lipid | TC↓, LDL↓, CD40L↓, sCD40L↓, NF-κB↓ | AS | Cai et al 2014 |
| Chuanxiong (Rhizoma Chuanxiong) | Carotid arteries blocked, and reperfusion Surgery induced the CIRI model-KM mice | 60 mg/Kg Nasal instillation | Improve neurological deficits and brain pathology | n/a | CIRI | Long et al 2023 |
| Zhuyacao (Gleditsiae fructus abnormalis) | Suture occluded method induced the CIRI model-SD rats | Nasal instillation 30 μL/d for 7 d | Alleviate neurological impairment, decrease cerebral infarct volume | IL-1β↓, IL-6↓, VEGF↓ | CIRI | Na-na et al 2023 |
| Chaxiong | Suture method induced middle cerebral artery occlusion in SD rats | Nasal instillation 50 μL or 100 μL/d for 7 d | Improvement of behavioral disorders in rats with cerebral ischemia, reduction of the percentage of the cerebral infarction area | n/a | CIRI | Huang et al 2022 |
Table 3 Therapeutic effects of EOs on cardiovascular system disorders: Experimental Models and Clinical Findings
| Essential Oil | Participant/ Animal | Dose/Mode | Effect | Mechanism | Indication | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lavender, ylang-ylang, Marjoram, Neroli | Hypertensive participants | Necklace with the EOs inhaled for 24 h for 4 weeks | Significant decreases in daytime SBP and DBP | n/a | Hypertension | Kim et al 2012 |
| Lavender | Patients | 2% two drops Inhale 10 min | Reduce systolic, diastolic pressure, and heart rate | n/a | Hypertension | Armaiti Salamati et al 2017 |
| Rosmarinus officinalis | Hypotensive patients | Inhale 8 h/d for 72 weeks | Significant increase in SBP, DBP, and heart rate | n/a | Hypotension | Fernández et al 2014 |
| Lemon | Health participants, patients | Three to four drops. Inhale for 10 min | Significant increase in health participants' heart rate and DBP, Consider-able increase in patient SBP, DBP, and heart rate | n/a | Hypotension | Goepfert et al 2017 |
| Moxibustion | Spontaneous AS model -ApoE−/− mice | Inhale 20 min/d 6 d/week for 12 weeks | Regulated blood lipid reduces plaque area formation | TG↓,LDL↓, ApoA-I↑, LXRα↑, ABCA1↑ | AS | Cui et al 2019 |
| Moxibustion | High-Cholester-ol diet and an injection of bo-vine serum alb-umin induces AS model-rabbit | Inhale 10 min/d for 4 weeks | Regulated blood lipid | TC↓, LDL↓, CD40L↓, sCD40L↓, NF-κB↓ | AS | Cai et al 2014 |
| Chuanxiong (Rhizoma Chuanxiong) | Carotid arteries blocked, and reperfusion Surgery induced the CIRI model-KM mice | 60 mg/Kg Nasal instillation | Improve neurological deficits and brain pathology | n/a | CIRI | Long et al 2023 |
| Zhuyacao (Gleditsiae fructus abnormalis) | Suture occluded method induced the CIRI model-SD rats | Nasal instillation 30 μL/d for 7 d | Alleviate neurological impairment, decrease cerebral infarct volume | IL-1β↓, IL-6↓, VEGF↓ | CIRI | Na-na et al 2023 |
| Chaxiong | Suture method induced middle cerebral artery occlusion in SD rats | Nasal instillation 50 μL or 100 μL/d for 7 d | Improvement of behavioral disorders in rats with cerebral ischemia, reduction of the percentage of the cerebral infarction area | n/a | CIRI | Huang et al 2022 |
Table 4 Therapeutic effects of EOs on metabolic system disorders: experimental models and clinical findings
| Essential oil | Participant | Dose/mode | Effect | Mechanism | Indication | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lavender, geranium, cinnamon, grapefruit, neroli, Ylang Ylang | Prediabetic middle-aged women | 1 mL of EOs was added to the necklace; inhaled 3-6 h/d for 2 weeks | Significantly decrease the fructosamine level | n/a | Diabetes | Hur et al 2019 |
| Patchouli | Given the HFD-induced obese model—SD rats | 0.3%, 1% inhaled 30 min for 12 weeks | Reduce food intake and weight, improve cholesterol profile, HDL↑, and LDL↓ | Leptin↓decreases leptin resistance | Obesity | Hong et al 2020 |
| Citronella | Given the HFD-induced obese model—SD rats | 1% inhaled for 10 min for 35 d | Decrease weight, lower blood cholesterol level | Sympathetic nerve activity↑ | Obesity | Hong et al 2022 |
| Fennel | Given HFD-induced lipid and metabolic dysfunction, the model—SD rats | 0.3%, 1% inhalation 30 min for 12 weeks | Decrease blood glucose levels | n/a | Diabetes | Hong et al 2022 |
| Basil | CMS-induced dyslipidemia model—SD rats | 100% inhaled 5 min/d for 4 weeks 20 min/d for 4 weeks | Reduce white adipose tissue, HDL↑, LDL↓, TG↓, TC↓ | n/a | Dyslipidemia | Kim et al 2022 |
| Bohe (Herba Menthae Haplocalycis) | HFD-induced obese-C57BL/6 mice | Inhale 2 h/d for 7 weeks | Body fat↓, serum level of AST↓, triglycerides↓, total cholesterol↓, and LDL↓ | n/a | Dyslipidemia | Kim et al 2023 |
Table 4 Therapeutic effects of EOs on metabolic system disorders: experimental models and clinical findings
| Essential oil | Participant | Dose/mode | Effect | Mechanism | Indication | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lavender, geranium, cinnamon, grapefruit, neroli, Ylang Ylang | Prediabetic middle-aged women | 1 mL of EOs was added to the necklace; inhaled 3-6 h/d for 2 weeks | Significantly decrease the fructosamine level | n/a | Diabetes | Hur et al 2019 |
| Patchouli | Given the HFD-induced obese model—SD rats | 0.3%, 1% inhaled 30 min for 12 weeks | Reduce food intake and weight, improve cholesterol profile, HDL↑, and LDL↓ | Leptin↓decreases leptin resistance | Obesity | Hong et al 2020 |
| Citronella | Given the HFD-induced obese model—SD rats | 1% inhaled for 10 min for 35 d | Decrease weight, lower blood cholesterol level | Sympathetic nerve activity↑ | Obesity | Hong et al 2022 |
| Fennel | Given HFD-induced lipid and metabolic dysfunction, the model—SD rats | 0.3%, 1% inhalation 30 min for 12 weeks | Decrease blood glucose levels | n/a | Diabetes | Hong et al 2022 |
| Basil | CMS-induced dyslipidemia model—SD rats | 100% inhaled 5 min/d for 4 weeks 20 min/d for 4 weeks | Reduce white adipose tissue, HDL↑, LDL↓, TG↓, TC↓ | n/a | Dyslipidemia | Kim et al 2022 |
| Bohe (Herba Menthae Haplocalycis) | HFD-induced obese-C57BL/6 mice | Inhale 2 h/d for 7 weeks | Body fat↓, serum level of AST↓, triglycerides↓, total cholesterol↓, and LDL↓ | n/a | Dyslipidemia | Kim et al 2023 |
Figure 1 The different types of intranasal EO delivery formulations are commonly used in therapeutic applications This diagram compares five intranasal delivery methods for EOs: (1) Drops, (2) Sprays, (3) Aerosols, (4) Aromatherapy, and (5) Fumigants. Each method's advantages (green) and disadvantages (red) are highlighted, such as bioavailability, distribution precision, user comfort, and operational complexity. It visually summarizes their unique characteristics for targeted therapeutic applications. EO: essential oil. Created using BioRender (BioRender.com Inc., Toronto, Canada).
Figure 1 The different types of intranasal EO delivery formulations are commonly used in therapeutic applications This diagram compares five intranasal delivery methods for EOs: (1) Drops, (2) Sprays, (3) Aerosols, (4) Aromatherapy, and (5) Fumigants. Each method's advantages (green) and disadvantages (red) are highlighted, such as bioavailability, distribution precision, user comfort, and operational complexity. It visually summarizes their unique characteristics for targeted therapeutic applications. EO: essential oil. Created using BioRender (BioRender.com Inc., Toronto, Canada).
Table 5 Comparative analysis of novel nasal delivery systems for EOs
| Delivery system | Characteristic | Advantage | Limitation | Application | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nanoemulsion | Thermodynamically stable; small droplet size (20-200 nm) | Enhances the solubility and stability of EOs; increases bioavailability; and reduces mucociliary clearance. | Requires surfactants; limited long-term stability | AR, anxiolytic | Rinaldi et al 2020 |
| Liposomes | Phospholipid bilayer vesicles encapsulating EO molecules | Reduces irritation; improves EO stability; and enhances targeting specificity | Expensive and requires complex manufacturing techniques; structural instability over time | CIRI, anti-atherosclerosis | Long et al 2023 |
| In situ nasal gel | Thermosensitive, pH-sensitive, or ion-sensitive gel forming upon nasal administration. | Prolongs nasal residence time; reduces mucosal irritation; improves bioavailability, and improves patient compliance. | Drug release rate depends on gel matrix properties; it may interfere with nasal mucociliary clearance. | Antidepressant, insomnia, AR | Huang et al 2022 |
| Nanostructured lipid carriers | Lipid-based nanoparticles composed of solid and liquid lipids | High drug-loading capacity with controlled release prolongs retention time in the nasal cavity. Improves EO stability | Complex formulation and challenging preparation process; May affect drug release kinetics | Antidepressant, anxiolytic | Bonaccorso et al 2021 |
Table 5 Comparative analysis of novel nasal delivery systems for EOs
| Delivery system | Characteristic | Advantage | Limitation | Application | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nanoemulsion | Thermodynamically stable; small droplet size (20-200 nm) | Enhances the solubility and stability of EOs; increases bioavailability; and reduces mucociliary clearance. | Requires surfactants; limited long-term stability | AR, anxiolytic | Rinaldi et al 2020 |
| Liposomes | Phospholipid bilayer vesicles encapsulating EO molecules | Reduces irritation; improves EO stability; and enhances targeting specificity | Expensive and requires complex manufacturing techniques; structural instability over time | CIRI, anti-atherosclerosis | Long et al 2023 |
| In situ nasal gel | Thermosensitive, pH-sensitive, or ion-sensitive gel forming upon nasal administration. | Prolongs nasal residence time; reduces mucosal irritation; improves bioavailability, and improves patient compliance. | Drug release rate depends on gel matrix properties; it may interfere with nasal mucociliary clearance. | Antidepressant, insomnia, AR | Huang et al 2022 |
| Nanostructured lipid carriers | Lipid-based nanoparticles composed of solid and liquid lipids | High drug-loading capacity with controlled release prolongs retention time in the nasal cavity. Improves EO stability | Complex formulation and challenging preparation process; May affect drug release kinetics | Antidepressant, anxiolytic | Bonaccorso et al 2021 |
Figure 2 The primary pathways through which EOs are administered via the nasal cavity can reach the central nervous system and systemic circulation This schematic highlights the pathways by which EOs are delivered through the intranasal route. (A) The olfactory region allows EOs to pass through the olfactory epithelium and reach the olfactory bulb, facilitating brain access via the olfactory nerve. (B) The respiratory region enables EO delivery via the trigeminal nerve and mucosal absorption. The figure also illustrates transport across the BBB (C) and alveolar-capillary barrier (D), showcasing potential systemic and localized effects. CSF: cerebrospinal fluid; EOs: essential oils. Created using BioRender (BioRender.com Inc., Toronto, Canada).
Figure 2 The primary pathways through which EOs are administered via the nasal cavity can reach the central nervous system and systemic circulation This schematic highlights the pathways by which EOs are delivered through the intranasal route. (A) The olfactory region allows EOs to pass through the olfactory epithelium and reach the olfactory bulb, facilitating brain access via the olfactory nerve. (B) The respiratory region enables EO delivery via the trigeminal nerve and mucosal absorption. The figure also illustrates transport across the BBB (C) and alveolar-capillary barrier (D), showcasing potential systemic and localized effects. CSF: cerebrospinal fluid; EOs: essential oils. Created using BioRender (BioRender.com Inc., Toronto, Canada).
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